Depositional elements and evolution of gravity-flow deposits on Lingshan Island (Eastern China): An integrated outcrop-subsurface study

Understanding how subaqueous sediment gravity flows (SSGF) evolve in time and space, and how their deposits vary spatially, is a key research focus for gravity flow sedimentology. This study investigates depositional facies, depositional elements, and sediment transport processes of supercritical flows and hybrid event beds (HEBs) of the Lingshandao Formation in Lingshan Island, Eastern China. Three kinds of depositional elements were recognized: mass transport deposits (MTDs), channel-lobe transition zone (CLTZs), and lobe complexes. MTDs can be sub-divided into proximal and distal deposits. CLTZs are characterized by facies changes from massive coarse-grained pebbly sandstone to backset bedding sandstone in a down-slope direction, which are the deposits of supercritical turbidity currents. HEBs are common in both proximal and distal lobe settings. Tripartite structure in HEBs, which may be caused by up-slope substrate erosion, implies a relatively proximal origin compared with bipartite HEBs, perhaps caused by fluid fractionation in the research area. The succession is formed by a prograding lobe unit, followed by MTDs which are themselves overlain by deposits from a CLTZ. This vertical stacking pattern implies the potential longitudinal facies tract from CLTZ; to lobe complex deposits, is accompanied by emplacement of MTDs at the slope break. The flow types accompanied by sediment transport processes imply that erosion by supercritical turbidity currents associated with a hydraulic jump in the channel-lobe transition zone may be the main reason for mud-clasts and matrix addition to the flow. The large-scale addition of mud-clasts and suspended mud may dampen turbulence in proximal to medial lobe settings, and result in medium-to thick-bedded HEBs with common erosional features and tripartite structures. The remaining suspension flow (with abundant mud) may further transport down-dip and form medium-to thin-bedded HEBs with bipartite structures and rare mud-clasts. These findings may be applicable to other SSGF systems with supercritical flow deposits and hybrid event beds, emphasizing the downdip and lateral variation in depositional elements associated with gravity flow evolution.